Driven To Be a Non-Traditional Student: Measurement of the Academic Motivation Scale with Adult Learners After Their Transition to University

[1] AES. (2016). Adult Education Survey 2016. Luxemburg: Eurostat.

[2] Alivernini, F., & Lucidi, F. (2008). The Academic Motivation Scale (AMS): Factorial structure, invariance, and validity in the Italian context. TPM-Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 15(4), 211–220.

[3] Bailey, T. H., & Phillips, L. J. (2016). The influence of motivation and adaptation on students' subjective well-being, meaning in life and academic performance. Higher Education Research & Development, 35(2), 201–216. | DOI 10.1080/07294360.2015.1087474

[4] Beauducel, A., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2006). On the performance of maximum likelihood versus means and variance adjusted weighted least squares estimation in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling, 13(2), 186–203. | DOI 10.1207/s15328007sem1302_2

[5] Bennett, S., Evans, T., & Riedle, J. (2007). Comparing academic motivation and accomplishments among traditional, nontraditional, and distance education college students. Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research, 12(4), 154–161.

[6] Boiché, J., & Sarrazin, P. (2007). Motivation autodéterminée, perceptions de conflit et d'instrumentalité et assiduité envers la pratique d'une activité physique: une étude prospective sur six mois. Psychologie française, 52, 417–430. | DOI 10.1016/j.psfr.2007.02.002

[7] Bourgeois, É., De Viron, F., Nils, F., Traversa, J., & Vertongen., G. (2009). Valeur, espérance de réussite, et formation d'adultes: pertinence du modèle d'expectancy-value en contexte de formation universitaire pour adultes. Savoirs, 2(20), 119–133. | DOI 10.3917/savo.020.0119

[8] Brahm, T., Jenert, T., & Wagner, D. (2017). The crucial first year: a longitudinal study of students' motivational development at a Swiss Business School. Higher Education, 73(3), 459–478. | DOI 10.1007/s10734-016-0095-8

[9] Bron, A., & Lönnheden, C. (2004). Higher education for non-traditional students in Sweden: A matter of inclusion. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education: Adult Education and Social Inclusion/Exclusion: Citizen Perspectives, 7, 175–188.

[10] Brücknerová, K., & Rabušicová, M. (2019). Netradiční vysokoškolští studenti: Charakterisitky a potenciál odloženého studia. Studia paedagogica, 24(1), 33–49. | DOI 10.5817/SP2019-1-2

[11] Bye, D., Pushkar, D., & Conway, M. (2007). Motivation, interest, and positive affect in traditional and nontraditional undergraduate students. Adult Education Quarterly, 57(2), 141–158. | DOI 10.1177/0741713606294235

[12] Can, G. (2015). Turkish version of the Academic Motivation Scale. Psychological Reports, 116(2), 388–408. | DOI 10.2466/14.08.PR0.116k24w5

[13] Carré, P. (2001). De la motivation à la formation. Paris: L'Harmattan.

[14] Chao, R., & Good, G. E. (§§2004), Nontraditional students' perspectives on college education: A qualitative study. Journal of College Counseling, 7(1), 5–12. | DOI 10.1002/j.2161-1882.2004.tb00253.x

[15] Chung, E., Turnbull, D., & Chur-Hansen, A. (2014). Who are non-traditional students? A systematic review of published definitions in research on mental health of tertiary students. Educational Research and Reviews, 9(22), 1224–1238.

[16] Cokley, K. O., Bernard, N., Cunningham, D., & Motoike, J. (2001). A psychometric investigation of the Academic Motivation Scale using a United States sample. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 109–119.

[17] Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–668. | DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627

[18] Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum.

[19] Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the selfdetermination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. | DOI 10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

[20] Eppler, M. A., Carsen-Plentl, C., & Harju, B. L. (2000). Achievement goals, failure attributions, and academic performance in nontraditional and traditional college students. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15(3), 353–372.

[21] Fairchild, A. J., Horst, S. J., Finney, S. J., & Barron, K. E. (2005). Evaluating existing and new validity evidence for the Academic Motivation Scale. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30(3), 331–358. | DOI 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.11.001

[22] Fairchild, E. E. (2003). Multiple roles of adult learners. New Directions for Student Services, 102, 11–16. | DOI 10.1002/ss.84

[23] Fazey, D. M., & Fazey, J. A. (2001). The potential for autonomy in learning: Perceptions of competence, motivation and locus of control in first-year undergraduate students. Studies in Higher Education, 26(3), 345–361. | DOI 10.1080/03075070120076309

[24] Forbus, P., Newbold, J. J., & Mehta, S. S. (2011). A study of non-traditional and traditional students in terms of their time management behaviors, stress factors, and coping strategies. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 15(Special Issue), 109–125.

[25] Francois, E. J. (2014). Motivational orientations of non-traditional adult students to enroll in a degree-seeking program. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 26(2), 19–35. | DOI 10.1002/nha3.20060

[26] Gately, N. J., Ellis, S., Britton, K., & Fleming, T. (2017). Understanding and overcoming barriers: Learning experiences of undergraduate Sudanese students at an Australian university. International Journal of Higher Education, 6(2), 121–132. | DOI 10.5430/ijhe.v6n2p121

[27] Hagedorn, L. (1999). Factors related to the retention of female graduate students over 30. Journal of College Student Retention, 1(2), 99–114. | DOI 10.2190/LKWC-EJUB-V5KM-BRNQ

[28] Hair, J. F., Black W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

[29] Hart, N. K. (2003). Best practices in providing nontraditional students with both academic and financial support. New Directions for Higher Education, 121, 99–106. | DOI 10.1002/he.104

[30] Hegarty, N. (2010). Application of the Academic Motivation Scale to graduate school students. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 6(2), 48–56.

[31] Jacobs, P. A., & Newstead, S. E. (2000). The nature and development of student motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(2), 243–254. | DOI 10.1348/000709900158119

[32] Jorgensen, T. D., Pornprasertmanit, S., Schoemann, A. M., & Rosseel, Y. (2018). semTools: Useful tools for structural equation modeling. R package version 0.5-1. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=semTools

[33] Kasworm, C. E. (2018). Adult students: A confusing world in undergraduate higher education. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 66(2), 77–87. | DOI 10.1080/07377363.2018.1469077

[34] Kim, K.A. (2002). ERIC review: Exploring the meaning of "nontraditional" at the community college. Community College Review, 30(1), 74–89. | DOI 10.1177/009155210203000104

[35] Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.

[36] Kobena Osam, E., Bergman, M., & Cumberland, D. M. (2017). An integrative literature review on the barriers impacting adult learners' return to college. Adult Learning, 28(2), 54–60. | DOI 10.1177/1045159516658013

[37] Kover, J. D., & Worrell, C. F. (2010). The influence of instrumentality beliefs on intrinsic motivation: A study of high-achieving adolescents. Journal of Advanced Academics, 21(3), 470–498. | DOI 10.1177/1932202X1002100305

[38] Milesi, C. (2010). Do all roads lead to Rome? Effect of educational trajectories on educational transitions. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 28(1), 23–44. | DOI 10.1016/j.rssm.2009.12.002

[39] Nils, F., & Vertongen, G. (2010). Les motifs de reprise d'études universitaires en fonction du niveau des programmes: développement professionnel, motifs identitaires, vocationnels et/ou intérêt intrinsèque?. 21ème colloque de l'ADMEE-Europe, p. 8. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329130859_Les_motifs_de_reprise_d'etudes_universitaires_en_fonction_du_niveau_des_programmes_Developpement_professionnel_motifs_identitaires_vocationnels_etou_interet_intrinseque.

[40] Pires, A. L. S. (2009). Higher education and adult motivation towards lifelong learning: An empirical analysis of university post-graduates perspectives. European Journal of Vocational Training, 1(46), 129–150.

[41] R Core Team (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org/

[42] Raykov, T. (2001). Estimation of congeneric scale reliability using covariance structure analysis with nonlinear constraints. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 54(2), 315–323. | DOI 10.1348/000711001159582

[43] Rosário, P., Pereira, A., Núñez, J. C., Cunha, J., Fuentes, S., Polydoro, S., Gaeta, M., & Fernández, E. (2014). An explanatory model of the intention to continue studying among non-traditional university students. Psicothema, 26(1), 84–90.

[44] Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R Package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. | DOI 10.18637/jss.v048.i02

[45] Rotter, J. (1966). Generalized experiences for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80(1), 1–28. | DOI 10.1037/h0092976

[46] Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. | DOI 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

[47] Ryan, R. M., Kuhl, J., & Deci, E. L. (1997). Nature and autonomy: An organizational view of social and neurobiological aspects of self-regulation in behavior and development. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 701–728. | DOI 10.1017/S0954579497001405

[48] Schuetze, H. G. (2014). From adults to non-traditional students to lifelong learners in higher education: Changing contexts and perspectives. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 20(2), 37–55. | DOI 10.7227/JACE.20.2.4

[49] Schuetze, H. G., & Slowey, M. (2002). Participation and exclusion: A comparative analysis of non-traditional students and lifelong learners in higher education. Higher Education, 44(3–4), 309–327. | DOI 10.1023/A:1019898114335

[50] Scott, L. M., & Lewis, C. W. (2012). Nontraditional students: Assumptions, perceptions, and directions for a meaningful academic experience. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(4), 1–10. | DOI 10.18848/1833-1882/CGP/v06i04/52068

[51] Sheldon, K. M., & Krieger, L. S. (2004). Does legal education have undermining effects on law students? Evaluating changes in motivation, values, and well-being. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 22(2), 261–286. | DOI 10.1002/bsl.582

[52] Shillingford, S., & Karlin, N. J. (2013). The role of intrinsic motivation in the academic pursuits of nontraditional students. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 25(3), 91–102.

[53] Slezáčková, A., & Bobková, A. (2015). Silné stránky charakteru a akademická motivace ve vztahu k optimálnímu prospívání českých vysokoškolských studentů [Character strengths and academic motivation with regard to ideal education of Czech university students]. Annales psychologici, 1(2), 24–39.

[54] Souto-Otero, M., & Whitworth, A. (2017). Adult participation in higher education and the 'knowledge economy': A cross-national analysis of patterns of delayed participation in HE across 15 European countries. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 38(6), 763–781. Stover, J. B., de la Iglesia, G., Boubeta, A. R., & Liporace, M. F. (2012). Academic Motivation Scale: Adaptation and psychometric analyses for high school and college students. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 5, 71–83. | DOI 10.1080/01425692.2016.1158639

[55] Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.

[56] Thunborg, C., Bron, A., & Edström, E. (2012). Forming learning identities in higher education in Sweden. Studies for the Learning Society, 2(2–3), 23–34. | DOI 10.2478/v10240-012-0002-5

[57] Thunborg, C., Bron, A., & Edström, E. (2013). Motives, commitment and student identity in higher education – Experiences of non-traditional students in Sweden. Studies in the Education of Adults, 45(2), 177–193.

[58] Tilley, B. P. (2014). What makes a student non-traditional? A comparison of students over and under age 25 in online, accelerated psychology courses. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 13(2), 95–106. | DOI 10.2304/plat.2014.13.2.95

[59] Twigg-Flesner, A. (2018). The end of lifelong learning – Where have all the mature undergraduate students gone? A literature review and practical recommendations from a case study in England. In J. Hoffman, P. Blessinger, & M. Makhanya (Eds.), Perspectives on diverse student identities in higher education: International perspectives on equity and inclusion (pp. 129–145). Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited.

[60] Utvær, B. K. S., & Haugan, G. (2016). The Academic Motivation Scale: Dimensionality, reliability, and construct validity among vocational students. Nordic Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 6(2), 17–45. | DOI 10.3384/njvet.2242-458X.166217

[61] Vallerand, R. J., Blais, M. R., Brière, N. M., & Pelletier, L. G. (1989). Construction et validation de l'échelle de motivation en éducation (EME) [Construction and validation of the Motivation toward Education Scale]. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 21(3), 323–349.

[62] Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Brière, N. M., Senécal, C., & Vallières, E. F. (1992). The Academic Motivation Scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(4), 1003–1017. | DOI 10.1177/0013164492052004025

[63] Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Brière, N. M., Senécal, C., & Vallières, E. F. (1993). On the assessment of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education: Evidence on the concurrent and construct validity of the Academic Motivation Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(1), 159–172. | DOI 10.1177/0013164493053001018

[64] Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Koestner, R. (2008). Reflections on self-determination theory. Canadian Psychology, 49(3), 257–262. | DOI 10.1037/a0012804

[65] Vallerand, R. J., & Thill, E. E. (1993). Introduction au concept de motivation. In R. J. Vallerand & E. E. Thill (Eds.), Introduction à la psychologie de la motivation (pp. 411–414). Laval: Éditions études vivantes – Vigot.

[66] van Rhijn, T. (2012). An investigation of mature students' motivation to attend university. Proceedings of the Canadian Society for the Study of Higher Education (CSSHE) Annual Conference, 28 to 30 May 2012, Waterloo, Ontario, p. 346. Retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/33431234/2012_CASAE_Proceedings.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1558347250&Signature=zhMVoLPs87iM%2B29IpQNoUK1%2BpII%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DSocial_Networking_Sites_Online_Spaces_fo.pdf#page=346

[67] Viau, R. (2001). La motivation: condition essentielle de réussite. In J. C. Ruano-Borbalan (Ed.), Éduquer et former (pp. 113–121). Paris: Éditions Sciences Humaines.

[68] Zákon č. 117/1995 Sb., o státní sociální podpoře [Czech Act No. 117/1995 Sb., On state social support]. (1995). Praha: Tiskárna Ministerstva vnitra.